Monday 5 December 2016
Common Communicable Diseases Found in India
Common Communicable Diseases Found in India
The common communicable diseases found in India are as
follows: 1. Malaria 2. Typhoid 3. Hepatitis 4. Jaundice 5. Diarrhoeal Diseases
6. Amoebiasis 7. Cholera 8. Influenza 9. Tuberculosis.
Worldwide, the lack of clean water for drinking, cooking and
washing, and the lack of sanitary waste disposal are to blame for over 12
million deaths a year, say researchers. About 1.2 billion people are at risk
because they lack access to safe fresh water. India too has its share of
infectious epidemics; and though mortality owing to these is decreasing, it is
a significant part of the disease burden our society carries.
The disease burden is high in India, for obvious reasons
like poor sanitation, lack of access to fresh water, poor hygiene, etc., which
are common in the most developing countries. Though exact dependable statistics
are not available, a good percentage of cases go unreported. Secondly,
‘infection is not recognized till it becomes symptomatic.
Communicable Diseases in India:
The most common diseases are as follows:
1. Malaria:
Malaria is a very common disease in developing countries.
The word malaria is derived from the word ‘mal-aria meaning bad air. Ronald
Ross first discovered the transmission of malaria by mosquitoes, while he was
working in India (Secunderabad, AP) in 1897. Malaria is one of the most
widespread diseases in the world.
Each year, there are 300 to 500 million clinical cases of
malaria, 90 percent of them in Africa alone. Among all infectious diseases,
malaria continues to be one of the biggest contributors to disease burden in
terms of deaths and suffering. Malaria kills more than one million children a
year in the developing world, accounting for about half of malaria deaths
globally.
2. Typhoid:
Typhoid fever is an acute, systemic infection presenting as
fever with abdominal symptoms, caused by Salmonella typhi and paratyphi.
The organisms are acquired via ingestion of food or water,
contaminated with human excreta from infected persons. Direct person-to-person
transmission is rare. Typhoid is a global health problem. It is seen in
children older than the age of one.
Geographical Distribution Worldwide, typhoid fever affects
about six million people with more than 6, 00,000 deaths a year. Almost 80
percent of cases and deaths occur in Asia, and most others in Africa and Latin
America. Among Asian countries, India probably has a large number of these
cases.
Carriers of Typhoid Fever Typhoid infection is mainly
acquired from persons who are carriers of the disease. Carriers are the people
who continue to excrete salmonella through their urine and feces a year after
an attack of typhoid. A chronic carrier state develops in about 2 to 5 percent
of the cases. The organisms in such cases make the gall bladder their habitat.
3. Hepatitis:
Hepatitis is the inflammation of liver. It can be caused by
viruses (five different viruses— termed A, B, C, D and E cause viral Hepatitis),
bacterial infections, or continuous exposure to alcohol, drugs, or toxic
chemicals, such as those found in aerosol sprays and paint thinners, or as a
result, of an auto-immune disorder.
Hepatitis results in either damage or reduction in the
livers ability to perform life-preserving functions, including filtering
harmful, infectious agents from blood, storing blood sugar and converting it
into usable energy forms, and producing many proteins necessary for life.
Symptoms seen in Hepatitis differ according to the cause and
the overall health of the infected individual. However, at times, the symptoms
can be very mild. The commonly seen clinical features are general weakness and
fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, fever, abdominal pain and tenderness. The
main feature is the presence of jaundice (yellowing of skin and eyes that
occurs when the liver fails to break-down excess yellow- coloured bile pigments
in the blood).
4. Jaundice:
Jaundice, also known as icterus, is a condition, which is
characterized by yellowish discolouration of the skin and whites of eyes. It
is a symptom or clinical sign, not a disease by itself. The yellow colouration
is caused by an excess amount of bile pigment known as bilirubin in the body.
Normally, bilirubin is formed by the breakdown of haemoglobin during the destruction
of worn-out red blood cells.
5. Diarrhoeal Diseases:
The term gastroenteritis’ is most frequently used to
describe acute diarrhoea. Diarrhoea is defined as the passage of loose, liquid
or watery stools. These liquid stools are usually passed more than three times
a day. The attack usually lasts for about 3 to 7 days, but may also last up to
10 to 14 days.
Diarrhoea is a major public health problem in developing
countries. Diarrhoeal diseases cause a heavy economic burden on health
services. About 15 percent of all pediatric beds in India are occupied by
admissions due to gastroenteritis. In India, diarrhoeal diseases are a major
public health problem among children under the age of 5 years. In health
institutions, up to a third of total pediatric admissions are due to diarrhoeal
diseases.
6. Amoebiasis:
Amoebiasis is an infection caused by a parasite ‘Entamoeba
Histolytica. The intestinal disease varies from mild abdominal discomfort and
diarrhoea to acute fulminating dysentery. Extra intestinal amoebiasis includes
involvement of the liver (liver abseess), lungs, brain, spleen, skin, etc.
7. Cholera:
Cholera is an acute diarrhoeal disease caused by V. Cholera
(classical or El T). It is now commonly due to the El T or biotype. The
majority of infections are mild or symptomatic. Epidemics of cholera are
characteristically abrupt and often create an acute public health problem. They
have a high potential to spread fast and cause deaths. The epidemic reaches a
peak and subsides gradually as the ‘force of infection declines. Often, when
time control measures are instituted, the epidemic has already reached its peak
and is waning.
8. Influenza:
Influenza is an acute respiratory tract infection caused by
influenza virus of which there are three types—A, B and C. All known pandemics
were caused by influenza A strains, due to various factors. Influenza is found
all over the world.
The unique features of influenza epidemics are the
suddenness with which they arise, and the speed and ease with which they
spread. The short incubation period, a large number of subclinical cases, a
high proportion of susceptible population, short duration of immunity, and an
absence of cross-immunity, all contribute to its rapid spread. The fate of the
virus during inter-epidemic periods is also known. Possible explanations
include transmission of virus to extra-human reservoirs (pigs, horses, birds.
etc.,) latent infection or continuous transfer from one human to another. This
explains the occurrence of sporadic cases.
9. Tuberculosis:
Tuberculosis remains a worldwide public health problem,
particularly in the Third World countries. Tuberculosis is India’s biggest
public health problem. An estimated that 5, 00,000 deaths annually are reported
due to this disease, while a similar number of persons get cured.
The population in the Third World countries like India is
exposed to tuberculosis. The disease, however, does not develop in everyone
who is exposed. Poor nutrition, overcrowding, low socio-economic status, are
more likely to develop the disease.
Gender Discrimination in India
Gender Discrimination in India
Though the Indian constitution provides equal rights and
privileges for men and women and makes equal provision to improve the status of
women in society, majority of women are still unable to enjoy the rights and
opportunities guaranteed to them.
Traditional value system, low level of literacy, more house
hold responsibilities lack of awareness, non-availability of proper guidance,
low mobility, lack of self-confidence family discouragement and advanced
science and technology are some of the factors responsible to create gender
disparity in our society. The most important causes of gender disparity such as
poverty, illiteracy, unemployment, social customs, belief and anti-female
attitude are discussed here.
1. Poverty:
In India of the total 30 percent people who are below
poverty line, 70 percent are women. Women’s poverty in India is directly
related to the absence of economic opportunities and autonomy, lack of access
to economic resources including credit , land ownership and inheritance, lack
of access to education and support services and their minimal participation in
the decision making process. The situation of women on economic front is no
better and men still enjoy a larger share of the cake. Thus poverty stands at
the root of gender discrimination in our patriarchal society and this economic
dependence on the male counterpart is itself a cause of gender disparity.
2. Illiteracy:
Despite the notable efforts by the countries around the
globe that have expanded for the basic education , there are approximately 960
million illiterate adults of whom two thirds are women .Educational
backwardness of the girls has been the resultant cause of gender discrimination.
The disparities become more visible between male and female literacy rate, during
2001. The literacy rates for males increased from 56% in 1981 to nearly 76% in
2001. The corresponding change in female literacy rate from 30 to 54%. On the
whole the decline on gender gap peaked in 1981 at 26.6% and was 21.7% in 2001
is less impressive. The interstate variation in literacy rate for males was
much lower in comparison to females. At the state level female literacy rate
varies from 35% in Bihar to 88% in Kerala In states like Arunachal Pradesh,
Assam, Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir and Rajasthan, the female literacy rate is
below 50%.
3. Lack of Employment Facilities:
Women are not able to resolve the conflict between new
economic and old domestic roles. In both rural and urban India, women spend a
large proportion of time on unpaid home sustaining work. Women are not able to
respond to new opportunities and shift to new occupations because their
mobility tends to be low due to intra-house hold allocation of
responsibilities.
Rights and obligations within a house hold are not
distributed evenly. Male ownership of assets and conventional division of
labour reduce incentives for women to undertake new activities. In addition
child bearing has clear implications for labour force participation by women.
Time spent in bearing and rearing of children often results in de-Skilling,
termination of long term labour contacts. Thus women are not being able to be
economically self sufficient due to unemployment and their economic dependence
on the male counterpart is itself a cause of gender disparity.
4. Social Customs, Beliefs and Practices:
Women are not free from social customs, beliefs and
practices. The traditional patrilineal joint family system confines women’s
roles mostly to the domestic sphere, allocating them to a subordinate status,
authority and power compared to men. Men are perceived as the major providers
and protectors of a family while women are perceived as playing only a
supportive role, attending to the hearth. Boys and girls are accordingly
drained for different adult roles, status and authority. In Indian culture
since very early periods, men have dominated women as a group and their status
has been low in the family and society.
Parents often think that teaching a girl child to manage the
kitchen is more important than sending her to school. Many feel that it is an
unnecessary financial burden to send a girl child to school as subsequently she
will be married off and shifted to some other family. This orthodox belief of
parents is responsible for gender disparity.
5. Social Altitude:
Though many social activists and reformers carried their
crusade against all social odds to restore honour and dignity to women,
attitudinal disparities still hunt our rural masses. Despite pronounced social
development and technological advancement, women in our society still continue
to be victims of exploitation, superstition, illiteracy and social atrocities.
The social stigma that women are housekeepers and should be
confined to the four walls of the house is perhaps a viable cause of gender
disparity. They should not raise their voice regarding their fortune for the
sake of the prestige of the family. In patriarchal society a lot of weightage
is given to men.
6. Lack of Awareness of Women:
Most of the women are unaware of their basic rights and
capabilities. They even do not have the understanding as to how the
socio-economic and political forces affect them. They accept all types of
discriminatory practices that persist in our family and society largely due to
their ignorance and unawareness.
Article 15 of the Indian constitution states that the state
shall not discriminate any citizen on the grounds of only sex. The irony is
that there still is widespread discrimination which is a form of injustice to
women. Hence at the onset of the new millennium let this generation be a
historic example by putting an end to the gender – based discriminations by
unfurling the flag of gender justice in all our action and dealings.
Gandhi and Women Empowerment
Gandhi and Women Empowerment |
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Gandhiji’s view on Women Liberty:
Gandhi worked not only for the political emancipation of
the nation, but for liberation of all the suppressed and oppressed sections
of society. One of the noteworthy results of his life-work has been the
awakening of women, which made them shed their deep-rooted sense of
inferiority and rise to dignity and self- esteem. For Gandhi, "When
woman, whom we all call abala becomes sabala, all those who are helpless will
become powerful". The welfare of the weaker sections of society was dear
to his heart. He had no qualms about the priority of social over political
ends. In his opinion, to postpone social reform till after the attainment of
Swaraj.
Gandhiji’s Influence on Women:
Women, urban and rural, educated and uneducated, Indian
and foreign, were attractd to his ideas and deeds. While some like Sarojini
Naidu, Lakshmi Menon, Sushila Nayyar and Rajkumari Amrit Kaur rose to
prominence, there were thousands of unsung and unnoticed heroines of India
who learnt the meaning of liberation from him and contributed with all their
energy to the struggle for independence. Life sketches and reminiscences of
women freedom-fighters give us glimpses of their crusade against injustice
and inequality.
Gandhiji’s view on Women upliftment:
Gandhiji’s View on Participation of Women in Politics:
M. K. Gandhi is known to be one of the few people who
encouraged women's active participation in the freedom struggle-marking him
as a rare promoter of women's liberation. In Gandhi words, "My
contribution to the great problem (of women's role in society) lies in my
presenting for acceptance of truth and ahimsa in every walk of life, whether
for individuals or nations. I have hugged the hope that in this, woman will
be the unquestioned leader and, having thus found her place in human
evolution, will shed her inferiority complex. Women's entry into national
politics through non-violent methods brought miraculous results. On the one
hand, women became aware of their inner strength, and on the other, the
process brought human and moral elements into politics.
Gandhi had tremendous faith in women's inherent capacity for non-violence. And his experience of participation by women in politics from his days in South Africa till the end of his life bears testimony to the fact that they never failed his expectations. With Gandhi's inspiration, they took the struggle right into their homes and raised it to a moral level. Women organized public meetings, sold Khadi and prescribed literature, started picketing shops of liquor and foreign goods, prepared contraband salt, and came forward to face all sorts of atrocities, including inhuman treatment by police officers and imprisonment. They came forward to give all that they had - their wealth and strength, their jewellery and belongings, their skills and labour-all with sacrifices for this unusual and unprecedented struggle. Gandhi's call to women to involve themselves in the freedom struggle had far-reaching results in changing their outlook. "The cause of Swaraj swept all taboos and old customs before it". Many women in their individual lives shed their age-old prejudices against the caste system. They had no hesitation in leaving the boundaries of their protected homes and going to the jail. They even broke their glass bangles (a sign of ill omen for married women) when they were told that they were made of Czechoslovakian glass. Women's participation in the freedom struggle feminized nationalism and the nationalist struggle helped them to liberate from age-old traditions. Though Gandhi never challenged the traditional set up, he inspired women to carve out their own destinies within it, and thereby changing its very essence. Women learnt from Gandhi that one can be strong, even if seemingly weak, to protest against injustice. They realised that they do not have to accept the norms of male-dominated politics. They evolved their own perspectives and formulated their own methods. In a way they presented a critique of the colonial unethical state. Gandhi could see woman as connected with service and not with power. When a woman wrote to him in 1946 about the political scene and the paucity of women in it, he wrote: "So long as considerations of caste and community continue to weigh with us and rule our choice, women will be well-advised to remain aloof and thereby build up their prestige. Women workers should enrol women as voters, impart or have imparted to them practical education, teach them to think independently, release them from the chains of caste that bind them so as to bring about a change in them which will compel men to realise women's strength and capacity for sacrifice and give her places of honour. If they will do this, they will purify the present unclear atmosphere." His advice to women was to teach people in villages simple lessons of hygiene and sanitation. Seeking power would be, for them, "reversion of barbarity". And still Gandhi believed that, "Women must have votes and an equal status. But the problem does not end there. It only commences at the point where women begin to affect the political deliberations of the nation." |
Classroom Management
Classroom Management
Classroom management and management of student conduct are skills that teachers acquire and hone over time. These skills almost never "jell" until after a minimum of few years of teaching experience. To be sure, effective teaching requires considerable skill in managing the myriad of tasks and situations that occur in the classroom each day. Skills such as effective classroom management are central to teaching and require "common sense," consistency, an often undervalued teacher behaviour, a sense of fairness, and courage. These skills also require that teachers understand in more than one way the psychological and developmental levels of their students. The skills associated with effective classroom management are only acquired with practice, feedback, and a willingness to learn from mistakes. Sadly, this is often easier said than done. Certainly, a part of this problem is that there is no practical way for education students to "practice" their nascent skills outside of actually going into a classroom setting. The learning curve is steep, indeed.
An Effective Classroom Management Context
(these four things are fundamental)
1. Know what you want and what you don't want.
2. Show and tell your students what you want.
3. When you get what you want, acknowledge (not praise) it.
4. When you get something else, act quickly and appropriately.
CLASSROOM ARRANGEMENT
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The teacher must be able to observe all students at all times and to monitor work and behavior. The teacher should also be able to see the door from his or her desk.
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Frequently used areas of the room and traffic lanes should be unobstructed and easily accessible.
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Students should be able to see the teacher and presentation area without undue turning or movement.
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Commonly used classroom materials, e.g., books, attendance pads, absence permits, and student reference materials should be readily available.
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Some degree of decoration will help add to the attractiveness of the room.
SETTING EXPECTATIONS FOR BEHAVIOR
*Teachers should identify expectations for student behavior and communicate those expectations to students periodically.
* Rules and procedures are the most common explicit expectations. A small number of general rules that emphasize appropriate behavior may be helpful. Rules should be posted in the classroom. Compliance with the rules should be monitored constantly.
* Do not develop classroom rules you are unwilling to enforce.
* School-Wide Regulations...particularly safety procedures...should be explained carefully.
* Because desirable student behavior may vary depending on the activity, explicit expectations for the following procedures are helpful in creating a smoothly functioning classroom:
- Beginning and ending the period, including attendance procedures and what students may or may not do during these times.
- Use of materials and equipment such as the pencil sharpener, storage areas, supplies, and special equipment. - Teacher-Led Instruction - Seatwork - How students are to answer questions - for example, no student answer will be recognized unless he raises his hand and is called upon to answer by the teacher. - Independent group work such as laboratory activities or smaller group projects.
Remember, good discipline is much more likely to occur if the classroom setting and activities are structured or arranged to enhance cooperative behavior.
MANAGING STUDENT ACADEMIC WORK
* Students must be held accountable for their work.
* The focus is on academic tasks and learning as the central purpose of student effort, rather than on good behavior for its own sake.
MANAGING INAPPROPRIATE BEHAVIOR
* Address instruction and assignments to challenge academic achievement while continuing to assure individual student success.
* Most inappropriate behavior in classrooms that is not seriously disruptive and can be managed by relatively simple procedures that prevent escalation.
* Effective classroom managers practice skills that minimize misbehavior.
* Monitor students carefully and frequently so that misbehavior is detected early before it involves many students or becomes a serious disruption.
* Act to stop inappropriate behavior so as not to interrupt the instructional activity or to call excessive attention to the student by practicing the following unobstructive strategies:
- Moving close to the offending student or students, making eye contact and giving a nonverbal signal to stop the offensive behavior.
- Calling a student's name or giving a short verbal instruction to stop behavior.
- Redirecting the student to appropriate behavior by stating what the student should be doing; citing the applicable procedure or rule.
- More serious, disruptive behaviors such as fighting, continuous interruption of lessons, possession of drugs and stealing require direct action according to school board rule.
PROMOTING APPROPRIATE USE OF CONSEQUENCES
* In classrooms, the most prevalent positive consequences are intrinsic student satisfaction resulting from success, accomplishment, good grades, social approval and recognition.
* Students must be aware of the connection between tasks and grades. * Frequent use of punishment is associated with poor classroom management and generally should be avoided. * When used, negative consequences or punishment should be related logically to the misbehavior. * Milder punishments are often as effective as more intense forms and do not arouse as much negative emotion. * Misbehavior is less likely to recur if a student makes a commitment to avoid the action and to engage in more desirable alternative behaviors. * Consistency in the application of consequences is the key factor in classroom management | |
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