ENGLISH - concept of individual differences

Individual difference

Individuals that separate them from one person to another and make one as a unique individual in oneself are termed as individual differences.
Osborne considers individual differences as dissimilarity between persons that distinguish them from one another.
The nature of individual differences can be summarized as follows
1) Individual difference are one of degree, not one kind.
All persons do have common human traits. But the amount and proportions of such traits differ from person to person leading to uniqueness of personality and behaviors the concept of individual differences refers to quantitative differences found among individuals in respect of a specific traits or various traits.
2) Normal distribution of traits
All measures of traits that contribute to individual difference tend to distribute themselves according to the laws of normal probability curve.
3) There exist both inter-individual and intra-individual differences.
Individuals not only differ among themselves with respect to a specific trait but differences may be also noticed within the same individual when he is studied in respect of various traits.
Educational significance of individual difference

Some of the important implications of individual difference in education are the following:
1)As far as possible individual method of instruction may be adopted.
2) As every student has his peculiar differences individual attention should be paid by the teacher.
3) As individuals differ in their interest and abilities a large number of subjects of study should be provided by the school, so that student may have wide choices in selection of the subject they offer for study.
4) Individual differences call for individualized curriculum, methods of teaching, evaluation techniques etc.
5) Individual differ widely in their abilities needs interest aptitude attitude etc. Therefore it is essential that arrangements should be made to provide educational and vocational guidance to the pupils individually.

ENGLISH - education in post independent india

Post-independence Efforts to Reform Educational System!

Since the attainment of freedom a definite trend towards reformation of educational system is discernible. From Lime lo Lime committees have been appointed to probe into the defects and suggest means for improvement. The Mudaliar Report on Secondary Education (1952) stressed the need of training Indians in the democratic way of life.

The Report read out “Citizenship in a democracy is a very exacting and challenging responsibility for which every citizen has to be carefully trained. II involves many intellectual, social and moral qualities which cannot be expected to grow of their own accord. In any kind of regimented social order, the individual does not need to indulge in the travail of independent thinking.

But in a democracy-if it is anything more than the thoughtless exercise of the vote—an individual must form his own independent judgment on .all kinds of complicated social, economic and political issues and lo a large extent decides his own course of action.” Similarly, the Radhakrishnan Report on University Education emphasized that the purpose of education was to provide a coherent picture of the universe and an integrated way of life.

On the basis of these Reports some reforms were introduced in the educational system of the country, for example, the introduction of Higher Secondary scheme along with Three Year Degree Course and the opening of more and more vocational and technical schools and colleges.

The Education Commission which was set up by the Government of India in July 1964, submitted its report in June 1966. The commission reviewed the existing system of education, primary, secondary, university and technical, in all its aspects. In the main, the Commission stressed that Indian education needs a drastic reconstruction, almost a revolution.

Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

One of the most widely used ways of organizing levels of expertise is according to Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. (Bloom et al., 1994; Gronlund, 1991; Krathwohl et al., 1956.) Bloom's Taxonomy (Tables 1-3) uses a multi-tiered scale to express the level of expertise required to achieve each measurable student outcome. Organizing measurable student outcomes in this way will allow us to select appropriate classroom assessment techniques for the course.

There are three taxonomies. Which of the three to use for a given measurable student outcome depends upon the original goal to which the measurable student outcome is connected. There are knowledge-based goals, skills-based goals, and affective goals (affective: values, attitudes, and interests); accordingly, there is a taxonomy for each. Within each taxonomy, levels of expertise are listed in order of increasing complexity. Measurable student outcomes that require the higher levels of expertise will require more sophisticated classroom assessment techniques.

The course goal in Figure 2--"student understands proper dental hygiene"--is an example of a knowledge-based goal. It is knowledge-based because it requires that the student learn certain facts and concepts. An example of a skills-based goal for this course might be "student flosses teeth properly." This is a skills-based goal because it requires that the student learn how to do something. Finally, an affective goal for this course might be "student cares about proper oral hygiene." This is an affective goal because it requires that the student's values, attitudes, or interests be affected by the course.
 

English - Teacher is a Techno Pedagogue

Teacher as a Techno Pedagogue

INTRODUCTION

The term “pedagogue” is derived from two Greek words pais, paidos meaning boy and agogos meaning guide which together connotes a teacher. Thus pedagogic implies the science of teching.By pedagogic analysis we mean a logical and systematic breakup of the curriculum from the point of view of a pedagogue [teacher] for the purpose of its effective transaction.

Techno pedagogy is a key deciding factor in while an educational media product is a successful or not. Literally ‘pedagogy’ refers to art, the art skill handcrafting, derived from the Latin texere [to weave or fabricate].Here techno is a qualifier; it intersects or crosses the meaning of ‘pedagogy’ with its own. Techno pedagogy refers to the techniques of the craft of teaching into the learning environment itself. It requires conscious recognition of the mediated learning environment in order to maximize the ease and clarity in the transmission of information.

Technology in professional development is a complex issue. Technology helps higher education to overcome previous outreach barriers, particularly in reaching students in remote location. Because technologies are continually changing, the instability of technology, as well as the unfired nature of the knowledge required in using them, places in additional demands on faculty to keep up with constant stream of new technologies. Technology is a broad and constantly changing skill- set required of faculty and selecting the appropriate techno pedagogical strategies to effectively engage students in the content is a separate skill- set. Media literacy influence students’ development and developing a critical analysis of media consumption is an important skill for students. Pedagogy and e- learning co- constructive pedagogies together. The dynamics of classrooms change when e- learning is a part of regular learning environment. The technological pedagogical content knowledge is a collaboratively developed frame work of scholars and researchers seeking to conceptualize and clarity the competencies that evolve from the inter section between pedagogy and technology. Pedagogical content knowledge was first described by Leeshulman [1986] and TPACK builds on core ideas through the inclusion of technology. Technological content knowledge refers to knowledge about how technology may be used to provide new ways of teaching content.

 Content knowledge is a is a teacher’s knowledge about the subject matter to be learned for taught. It defines as “a through grounding in college level subject matter or comment of the subject.” It may also include knowledge or concepts, theories conceptual frames as well as knowledge about accepted ways of developing knowledge. Content knowledge is a is a teacher’s knowledge about the subject matter to be learned for taught. Knowledge of content is critical importance for teachers. As ideas organizational frame works, knowledge of evidence and proof as well as established practices and approaches towards developing such knowledge.

Pedagogical knowledge is deep knowledge about processes and practices or methods of teaching and learning. They encompass, among other things, overall educational purpose, values and aims, this generic form of knowledge applies to understanding how students learn, general classroom management skills, and lesson planning and student’s assessment. It includes knowledge about techniques or methods used in the classroom. A teacher with deep pedagogical knowledge understands how students construct knowledge and acquire skills and how they develop habits of mind and positive dispositions toward learning. Pedagogical knowledge requires an understanding of cognitive and developmental theories of knowledge and how they are play to students in the classrooms.

ENGLISH - Social Constructivism

What is Social Constructivism?

Social constructivism emphasizes the importance of culture and context in understanding what occurs in society and constructing knowledge based on this understanding (Derry, 1999; McMahon, 1997). This perspective is closely associated with many contemporary theories, most notably the developmental theories of Vygotsky and Bruner, and Bandura's social cognitive theory (Shunk, 2000).

Assumptions of Social Constructivism

Social constructivism is based on specific assumptions about reality, knowledge, and learning. To understand and apply models of instruction that are rooted in the perspectives of social constructivists, it is important to know the premises that underlie them.

Reality: Social constructivists believe that reality is constructed through human activity. Members of a society together invent the properties of the world (Kukla, 2000). For the social constructivist, reality cannot be discovered: it does not exist prior to its social invention.

Knowledge: To social constructivists, knowledge is also a human product, and is socially and culturally constructed (Ernest, 1999; Gredler, 1997; Prat & Floden, 1994). Individuals create meaning through their interactions with each other and with the environment they live in.

Learning: Social constructivists view learning as a social process. It does not take place only within an individual, nor is it a passive development of behaviors that are shaped by external forces (McMahon, 1997). Meaningful learning occurs when individuals are engaged in social activities.

EDUCATION IN BUDDHIST PERIOD IN INDIA

In India during the time of Buddha, there was a racial discrimination in the society. This discrimination was according to profession of man, and  according to birth. In the society there were four division of man of whom Brahman was superior. Brahmanism dominated the society and established their supremacy in the country. They enjoyed rights for religious training and education. But other category of people deprived of their religious and educational rights. At that time there were 62 heretical doctrines in existence and priesthood got upper hand. In this background a religious revolution started in ancient India in 600 B.C. and a new doctrine or system developed which is called Buddhist doctrine or Buddhist philosophy. It is to be said that on the foundation of Buddhism a new and special Education System originated in ancient India. Buddhism made a tremendous movement which played a valuable role in the development of Education System in ancient India or ancient Buddhist world. It is well-known that with the rise of Buddhism in India there dawned the golden age of Indias culture and civilisation. There was progress in all aspects of Indian civilisation under the impact of Buddhism  There arose many centres of learning which did not exist before

Aims of education

The goal of Buddha’s teaching-the goal of Buddhist education is to attain wisdom. In Sanskrit, the language of ancient India, the Buddhist wisdom was called ―Anuttara-Samyak-Sambhodi‖ meaning the perfect ultimate wisdom. The Buddha taught us that the main objective of our practice or cultivation was to achieve this ultimate wisdom. The Buddha further taught us that everyone has the potential to realize this state of ultimate wisdom, as it is an intrinsic part of our nature, not something one obtains externally.

The chief aim of Buddhist  education was all round development of child’s personality. This included his physical , mental, moral and intellectual development.The aim of Buddhist Education is to make a free man, a wise, intelligent, moral, non-violent & secular man. Students became judicious, humanist, logical and free from superstitious. Students became free from greed, lust and ignorance. Buddhist Education was wide open and available to the people of all walks of life. The principal goal of the Buddhist Education is to change an unwise to wise, beast to priest.

PSYCHOLOGY - Motivation

The Definition of Motivation

Often, people confuse the idea of 'happy' employees with 'motivated' employees. These may be related, butmotivation actually describes the level of desire employees feel to perform, regardless of the level of happiness. Employees who are adequately motivated to perform will be more productive, more engaged and feel more invested in their work. When employees feel these things, it helps them, and thereby their managers, be more successful.

It is a manager's job to motivate employees to do their jobs well. So how do managers do this? The answer ismotivation in management, the process through which managers encourage employees to be productive and effective.

Think of what you might experience in a retail setting when a motivated cashier is processing your transaction. This type of cashier will:

• Be friendly, creating a pleasant transaction that makes you more likely to return
• Process your transaction quickly, meaning that the store can service more customers
• Suggest an additional item you would like to purchase, increasing sales for the store

In short, this employee is productive and delivers a high-quality output.

TECHNOLOGY - The Purpose of Evaluation

The Purpose of Evaluation

Evaluations of prevention programs fulfill a number of functions:

1.       Measure the program’s outcomes and impact

·         Did the program achieve its stated objectives?

·         Did it reach its intended audience?

·         Was the size of the outcome as expected?

·         Did the program have unexpected or unintended consequences?

·         Are outcomes consistent with those of similar programs?

2.       Inform future program planning and design

·         What are the strengths and weaknesses of a given approach?

·         What implementation problems have emerged?

·         Are measurement criteria appropriate and adequate?

·         Are confounding influences affecting outcomes (e.g., other interventions that may have been aimed at the same issue or target group)?

·         Have new ideas emerged, and can they be tested?

3.       Provide important internal lessons for those conducting programs

For example, evaluations can offer feedback on whether the expenditure of financial and human resources needed for the program was justifiable:

·         Were funds used properly?

·         Is there a return on investment?

4.       Ensure transparency and accountability

Particularly where outside funding has been used on an initiative, evaluations help provide justification for the project. They can also be used as a form of stakeholder engagement, helping to gain buy-in from local community members, local authorities, and target audiences.

·         Are suitable systems in place to ensure sound financial reporting, monitoring, etc.?

·         Have lessons been taken on board for future initiatives?

5.       Provide broader lessons about good practice

·         What lessons can be learned from this approach?

·         Are there lessons about policy options?

·         Do the results support existing evidence?

Pedagogical Content Knowledge: Definition & Explanation

Anne had a chemistry teacher her sophomore year of high school who had an impressive background working in the field. She knew the subject matter perfectly, so most people would assume that her knowledge made her a great teacher. After all, the most important thing is for the teacher to know what they teach inside and out, right? Well, yes... and no. Anne learned through her experience with Mrs. Johnson that she needed more than a teacher who knew her subject well. She needed one who also knew how to teach it well. So, while Anne's teacher knew chemistry like the back of her hand, she didn't seem to know how to explain it, illustrate it, and make it understandable to Anne and her classmates. For someone who wasn't the greatest with formulas and science to begin with, Anne really needed more assistance.

As it turned out, Anne wasn't the only student who needed more from her teacher. In 1986, Lee Shulman, an educator and researcher, noticed that all students need a teacher who is more than knowledgeable about their subjects. They also need one who can teach their specific subjects clearly and effectively. He called this combination of content and teaching knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge.

So, back to our first scenario with Mrs. Johnson. If she had combined her knowledge of chemistry with class exercises, creative examples, and careful explanations, she would have displayed pedagogical content knowledge. She also would have been a more successful teacher.

How to Use It

How can teachers implement it in the classroom? Well, several features make up pedagogical content knowledge, and each is intended to provide students a route to genuine understanding and learning.

Combining Content and Pedagogy

As mentioned earlier, the foundation of pedagogical content knowledge is the combination of both content and pedagogy. Rather than just knowing the ins and outs of psychology, for example, a psychology teacher has to know exactly how to get the concepts across to students. Let's say the teacher wants students to learn about positive reinforcement. Of course, she has to have a knowledge of what that is in order to teach it; that is her knowledge of psychology content. Then, based on her own understanding, she can explain the term and use examples. She can demonstrate it to the class by telling her students that for the rest of the week every time someone raises their hand to answer a question, he will be given a candy bar. Students can experience what it's like to have behavior reinforced and encouraged. They will likely understand the term and also find it memorable.

Understanding Student Perceptions

Pedagogical content knowledge requires an understanding of where students are coming from in reference to the subject being taught. That's because, in order to teach material well, teachers have to know what the students bring to the table as far as prior conceptions, feelings, and strategies. For example, many students tend to have personal thoughts about math word problems. A math teacher with pedagogical content knowledge would address each of these prior conceptions and show why each one is inaccurate. The teacher would help the students understand how to break down word problems to make them clearer and see them from a different perspective. If the students have certain strategies that they have been using, the teacher would want to know what those are, and how they might need to be changed.

Deciding a Subject's Difficulty

Teachers with pedagogical content knowledge must have a good grasp of which aspects of their subjects are typically easy for students and which are typically more difficult. That way, they can create lesson plans that move through the easier material quickly and provide more time for the difficult subjects. This will help students fully grasp the more difficult topics so they are better prepared to move forward.

Reaching a Plateau in Language Learning – How to Get Out of It?

There is probably nothing as frustrating as putting a hell of a lot of amount of work, and not feeling like you’re making any progress. Sadly, though, this situation happens to a lot of language learners, and it often becomes a dominant factor in people’s decision to stop learning a foreign language halfway through their goals. This is what we commonly call “reaching a plateau”. So why does it happen, and how can we avoid it, or at least, get out of it?

Routine, and Reaching the Autonomous Stage

Dr. K. Anders Ericsson, a Swedish psychologist and Professor at Florida State University, is widely recognized as one of the world’s leading theoretical and experimental researchers on expertise. According to him, hitting plateaus is a common occurrence in skill development (not only limited to language learning). Far from being a steady linear progression, mastery comes in bursts.

VEDIC EDUCATION -GURUKULA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION

VEDIC EDUCATION -GURUKULA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

The education system which was evolved first in ancient India is known

as the Vedic system of education. In other words, the ancient systems of

education were based on the Vedas and therefore it was given the name

of Vedic Educational System. Ancient education emerged from the Vedas.

They are supposed to be the source of Indian philosophy of life. Vedas

means ‘to know’.

Vedas occupy a very important place in the Indian life. The basis of Indian

culture lies in the Vedas which are four in number – Rigveda, Samveda,

Yajurveda, and Atharavaveda.



Some scholars have sub divided Vedic Educational period into

Rig Veda period, Brahmani period, Upanishada period, Sutra (Hymn)

period, Smriti period etc but all these period, due to predominance of the

Vedas, there was no change in the aims and ideals of educations. That is

why, the education of these periods, is studied under Vedic period. The

education system that prevailed during the Vedic times had some unique

characteristics. Education was confined to the upper castes, and to those

who were Brahmacharis. In Indian tradition, a person’s life cycle is divided

into four stages of which ‘Brahmacharis’ is the second phase. This is the

time set aside for learning and acquiring skills. During Vedic period, most

of the upper castes, which were either Brahmins or Kshatriyas, had their

education in a unique system called ‘Gurukulas’.

               The most important contribution of ancient India not only for

India but also for the world is in the field of education. It may also be

remembered that education is not an abstract term. It is manifested in the

cultural economic, individual, philosophical, scientific, social and spiritual

advancement. In other words, education is the means for developing the

mind for the betterment of the individual and society.

In the words of Albert Einstein, “We owe a lot to the Indians who taught us

how to count without which no worthwhile scientific discovery could have

made.” This word shows the importance of Vedic period and ancient Indian

education.

MAIN FEATURES OF THE VEDIC EDUCATION

             In ancient India teaching was considered to be holy duty which

a Brahman was bound to discharge irrespective of consideration of the

fee teacher were expected to devote their lives to the cause of teaching

in the missionary spirit of self-sacrifice, and the society laid down the

principal that both the public and state should help the learned teachers &

educational institutions very liberally. Society realized that “Vidyadana” or

the gift in the cause of education was to be the best of gifts, possessing

a higher religious merit than even the gift of land. On the occasion of

religious feats, students and teachers were invited and donations were

given liberally.

Assessment and Evaluation

Assessment and Evaluation

ASSESSMENT is the systematic collection of data to monitor the success of a program or course in achieving intended learning outcomes (ILOs)* for students.  Assessment is used to determine:

• What students have learned (outcome)
• The way they learned the material (process)
• Their approach to learning before, during, or after the program or course

You can assess students before instruction to get a baseline of what students know (for example, by administering a pretest).  During instruction, assessment can be used to determine what students are learning so you can adjust your teaching, if needed.  Quizzes or mud cards, which ask students to identify the “muddiest point” that remains for them after the class, are two methods of this kind of “formative assessment.”  After instruction, you can use assessment for two purposes:  (1) to determine if there has been a change in knowledge (final exams can be used for “summative assessment”); and (2) to provide you with information to revise the class or program.

EVALUATION is a judgment by the instructor or educational researcher about whether the program or instruction has met its Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO).

The main principles of curriculum construction may be mentioned as under

The main principles of curriculum construction may be mentioned as under:

1. Principle of Child Centeredness.

As modern education is child-centred the curriculum should also be child-centred. It should be based on the child's needs, interests, abilities, aptitude, age level and circumstances. The child should be central figure in any scheme of curriculum construction. In fact, curriculum is meant to bring about the development of the child in the desired direction so that he is able to adjust well in life.

Highlights

Principles of Curriculum Construction are:
1. Principles of Child Centredness ;
2. Principle of Community Centredness ;
3. Principle of Activity Centredness ;
4. Principle of Variety ;
5. Principle of Co-ordinations and Integration;
6. Principle of Conservation;
7. Principle of Creativity;
8. Principle of Forward. Looking;
9. Principle of Flexibility;
10. Principle of Balance;
11. Principle of Utility.

1. 2. Principle of Community Centredness.

Though the child's development and growth is the main consideration of curriculum construction, yet his social behaviour is also to be suitably developed, both the individual development and the social development of the child deserve equal attention. He is to live in and for the society.

Therefore, his needs and desires must be in conformity with the needs and desires of the society in which he is to live. The values, attitudes and skills that are prevailing in the community must be reflected in the curriculum. However, the society is not static. It is dynamic. Its needs and requirements are changing with the rapid developments taking place in all fields. While working for the development, this factor cannot be ignored.

3. Principle of Activity Centredness.

The curriculum should centre round the multifarious activities of pupils. It should provide well selected activities according to the general interests and developmental stages of children. It should provide constructive, creative and project activities. For small children, play activities should also be provided.!

The purposeful activities both in the class-room and outside the class-room should be provided. It is through a net work of activities that the desired experiences can be provided and consequently desirable behavioural changes can be brought about in children.

4. Principle of Variety.

The curriculum should be broad-based so as to accommodate the needs of varied categories of pupils, so that they are able to take up subjects and participate in activities according their capacities and interests.

The needs of pupils also change from place to place. For example, the pupils in rural areas, urban areas, and hilly areas will have different needs. The needs of boys and girls are also different. So these considerations should be reflected in the curriculum.

5. Principle of Co-ordination and Integration.

Of course, the pupils are to be provided with selected experiences through various subjects and activities but these must be well integrated. Various subjects and activities have to serve the same ultimate purpose, the achievement of the aims of education. The activities and subjects should not be put in after-tight compartments but these should be inter-related and well integrated so as to develop the whole child.

6. Principles of Conservation.

One of the main functions of education is to preserve and transmit our cultural heritage. This is essential for human progress. Culture consists of traditions, customs, attitudes, skills, conduct, values and knowledge. However, the curriculum framers must make a suitable selection of the elements of culture, keeping n view their educational value and the developmental stage of pupils.

7. Principle of Creativity.

The conservation of culture helps to sustain the society. The culture should not be simply transmitted but also enriched. There should be provision in the curriculum to develop he creative powers of the child so that he becomes a contributory member society. Raymont says, "In curriculum that is suited to the needs of today and of the future, there must be definitely creative subjects."

8. Principle of Forward Looking.

Education is to enable the child to lead a successful social life. So the curriculum should not cater to the present needs of the child alone. The needs of his future life should also be considered. The curriculum should also include knowledge, skills, experiences, influences etc. which will develop in the child abilities and power to make effective adjustments in the later life.

9. Principle of Flexibility.

In our age, rapid developments are taking place in various fields. Consequently the needs of society are hanging. The content of curriculum cannot be same for all times to come. It should not be static. It must be dynamic and change with the changing times. It should reflect the latest trends in the field of education and psychology.

10. Principle of Balance.

The curriculum must maintain a balance between subjects and activities, between direct and indirect experiences, between academic and vocational education, between compulsory and optional subjects, between formal and informal education, between individual and social aims of education etc.

11. Principle of Utility.

Curriculum should be useful rather than ornamental. It should not only include subjects which owe their place in it to tradition. The curriculum must have practical utility for students. So there should be some provision for technical and vocational education in the curriculum.

The various principles of curriculum construction should be kept in mind. Various regional and national conditions should also be considered. It fact, all considerations which will help in achieving the aims of education should be given due consideration.

Factors that May Affect the Learning Process

7 Important Factors that May Affect the Learning Process

Some of the important factors which may affect the learning process are as follows:

It has been found out that the pupil’s difficulty in learning may be due to many factors within the child himself.

Image Courtesy : impetus.co.uk/client/images/Learning%20Process.JPG

1. Intellectual factor:

The term refers to the individual mental level. Success in school is generally closely related to level of the intellect. Pupils with low intelligence often encounter serious difficulty in mastering schoolwork. Sometimes pupils do not learn because of special intellectual disabilities.

2. Learning factors:

Factors owing to lack of mastery of what has been taught, faulty methods of work or study, and narrowness of experimental background may affect the learning process of any pupil. If the school proceeds too rapidly and does not constantly check up on the extent to which the pupil is mastering what is being taught, the pupil accumulates a number of deficiencies that interfere with successful progress.

3. Physical factors:

Under this group are included such factors as health, physical development, nutrition, visual and physical defects, and glandular abnormality. It is generally recognized that ill health retards physical and motor develop­ment, and malnutrition interferes with learning and physical growth.

4. Mental factors:

Attitude falls under mental factors attitudes are made up of organic and kinesthetic elements. They are not to be confused with emotions that are character­ized by internal visceral disturbances. Attitudes are more or less of definite sort. They play a large part in the mental organization and general behavior of the individual.

5. Emotional and social factors:

Personal factors, such as instincts and emotions, and social factors, such as cooperation and rivalry, are directly related to a complex psychology of motivation. It is a recognized fact that the various responses of the individual to various kinds of stimuli are determined by a wide variety of tendencies.

6. Teacher’s Personality:

The teacher as an individual personality is an important element in the learning environ­ment or in the failures and success of the learner. The way in which his personality interacts with the personalities of the pupils being taught helps to determine the kind of behavior which emerges from the learning situation.

7. Environmental factor:

Physical conditions needed for learning is under environmental factor. One of the factors that affect the efficiency of learning is the condition in which learn­ing takes place. This includes the classrooms, textbooks, equip­ment, school supplies, and other instructional materials.